Geography(Mains Booster Series)

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The Hydrosphere and the Cryosphere

The hydrosphere constitutes all of the Earth's water in its various forms, including oceans, seas, lakes, rivers, groundwater, ice, and water vapor in the atmosphere. Covering approximately 70% of the Earth's surface, the hydrosphere plays a crucial role in sustaining life on the planet.

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Heat budget

Heat budget, also known as the Earth's energy budget, refers to the balance between incoming and outgoing energy in the Earth's atmosphere. It is essential for understanding the climate system and how energy is distributed and exchanged within the Earth's system.

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Pressure belts

Pressure belts refer to the global patterns of atmospheric pressure that exist on Earth's surface. These belts are formed due to the distribution of solar energy received by different regions and the rotation of the Earth. Understanding pressure belts is crucial in comprehending global weather patterns and the movement of air masses.

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Coral Reefs

Coral reefs are intricate ecosystems built by thousands of small animals known as coral polyps, which are closely related to anemones and jellyfish.

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Tides and Tidal Current

Tides are long-period waves that roll around the planet as the ocean is pulled by the moon's and sun's gravitational forces. They are the rise and fall of sea levels caused by the combined effects of the gravitational forces exerted by the Moon, the Sun, and the rotation of the Earth.

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Marine and Coastal Ecosystem

Marine ecosystems are aquatic environments with high dissolved salt concentrations, such as those found in or near the ocean. Marine ecosystems are defined by their unique biotic (living) and abiotic (nonliving) components.

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Marine Pollution

Marine pollution, the introduction of substances or energy into the oceans and seas, is an alarming and growing issue. It not only threatens marine life but also endangers human health, disrupts ecosystems, and stifles the economy.

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National Green Hydrogen Mission

The National Green Hydrogen Mission aims to incentivize the commercial production of green hydrogen in India and transform the country into a net exporter of this clean fuel. It encompasses various sub-schemes and targets the development of green hydrogen production capacity and renewable energy capacity.

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Gas Based Economy - Natural Gas Sector of India

The Ministry of Petroleum & Natural Gas in India has taken a significant step to enhance gas infrastructure activities in the country. They have introduced the National Dossiers and Draft City Gas Distribution (CGD) Policy for states. Under the Petroleum and Natural Gas Regulatory Board (PNGRB), the Prime Minister has initiated the ninth bidding for city gas distribution (CGD) projects.

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Lithium Reserves

The Geological Survey of India (GSI) has achieved a significant milestone by establishing the first-ever 'inferred' Lithium resources (G3) of 5.9 million tonnes in the Salal-Haimana area of the Union Territory of Jammu & Kashmir.

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Power and Energy Sector in India

India, one of the fastest-growing economies globally, has a burgeoning demand for power and energy. With a population exceeding 1.3 billion people and a rapidly developing economy, India's power and energy sector plays a crucial role in the country's growth and development.

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India's Power Sector in 2030: Transforming the Energy Landscape

India's power sector is poised for a significant transformation by 2030, according to the latest publication by the Central Electricity Authority (CEA). Titled "Report on Optimal Generation Mix 2030 Version 2.0," the report presents key highlights and projections for the future of India's energy mix. With a shift towards renewable energy (RE) sources, the country aims to reduce its reliance on coal and make substantial progress towards its climate commitments.

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Solar Energy in India: Revolutionizing the Power Sector

India's relentless pursuit of a sustainable future has led to substantial investments in renewable energy sources, with solar energy taking center stage. The Indian government has set an ambitious target of expanding the country's renewable energy installed capacity to 500 GW by 2030. To achieve this, India aims to source nearly half of its energy from non-fossil fuel sources by 2030, with solar power accounting for at least 60% of its renewable energy mix. The growth of the solar sector plays a vital role in India's commitment to reducing dependence on fossil fuels and transitioning to a greener future.

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Tsunami

"Tsunami," from Japanese, means "Harbour wave." It's a series of large, long-wavelength waves in large bodies of water caused by major disturbances above or below the surface, or due to significant water displacement. Despite the name "tidal wave," lunar and solar gravitational forces do not cause tsunamis.

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Landslides

Landslide, also called landslip, is the movement of a mass of rock, debris, earth, or soil (soil being a mixture of earth and debris). Landslides occur when gravitational and other types of shear stresses within a slope exceed the shear strength (resistance to shearing) of the materials that form the slope.

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Landslide Atlas of India

The Landslide Atlas of India has been released by the National Remote Sensing Centre (NRSC) under the Indian Space Research Organization (ISRO).

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Floods

Floods occur when a stream's discharge surpasses the capacity of its channel, causing excess water to flow over the banks and submerge the surrounding dry land.

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Cloudburst

A cloudburst is a localised but intense rainfall activity.
Short spells of very heavy rainfall over a small geographical area can cause widespread destruction, especially in hilly regions where this phenomenon is the most common.

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Urban Floods in Indian Cities: A Growing Crisis

Urban flooding is significantly different from rural flooding as urbanization leads to developed catchments, which increases the flood peaks from 1.8 to 8 times and flood volumes by up to 6 times. Consequently, flooding occurs very quickly due to faster flow times (in a matter of minutes). Urban areas are densely populated and people living in vulnerable areas suffer due to flooding, sometimes resulting in loss of life. It is not only the event of flooding but the secondary effect of exposure to infection also has its toll in terms of human suffering, loss of livelihood and, in extreme cases, loss of life.

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Forest Fire

Forest fires, also known as wildfires, are uncontrolled fires that rapidly spread across vegetation and forested areas, fuelled by dry conditions, wind, and flammable material. They are a natural and integral component of many ecosystems, promoting plant diversity and renewal. However, when severe or frequent, they can cause extensive damage to ecosystems, property, and human lives.

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Urban Fires

The recent fire incident in Delhi is yet another case of man-made disaster that the capital has witnessed. Fire incidents in India speak volumes of how India’s urban centers have time and again failed to meet the very basic safety norms. Indian cities have seen disastrous fire incidents before such as at Uphar Cinema (1997), the Lal Kuan fire tragedy (1999), the Anand Mandi fire (2019), and Hotel fire in Karol Bagh (2019)

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Chemical disasters

The loss of containment of hazardous chemicals can lead to fire, explosions, toxic release, or a combination of them. Chemical disasters may arise at any stage of the plant/process life cycle such as commissioning, storage, manufacturing, maintenance, disposal, transportation, etc.

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Disaster Management Plan for Power Sector

The Central Electricity Authority (CEA) has released the disaster management plan (DMP) for the power sector in a bid to evolve a proactive and integrated approach to strengthen disaster mitigation, preparedness, emergency response, and recovery efforts.

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Earthquake

An earthquake is a violent and abrupt shaking of the ground, caused by movement between tectonic plates along a fault line in the earth's crust. Earthquakes can result in ground shaking, soil liquefaction, landslides, fissures, avalanches, fires, and tsunamis.

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Cyclone

A cyclone is a large, rotating storm system with low pressure at its center. Cyclones can form in any ocean basin, but they are most common in the tropics. Cyclones can cause a variety of hazards, including strong winds, storm surges, and heavy rainfall.

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El Niño, La Niña, and ENSO

El Niño refers to the warming of seawater in the central-east Equatorial Pacific that happens every few years. During El Niño, surface temperatures in the equatorial Pacific rise, and trade winds weaken.

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Continental Drift Theory

The Continental Drift Theory, also known as the theory of plate tectonics, is a scientific concept that explains the movement of Earth's continents over time. It was first proposed by Alfred Wegener in the early 20th century and has since become a fundamental theory in the field of geology.

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Seafloor spreading

Seafloor spreading is a geological process that occurs along the oceanic ridges, where new oceanic crust is formed and spread apart from each other. This concept was proposed by Harry Hess in the early 1960s and is a fundamental aspect of plate tectonics theory. Seafloor spreading provides insights into the mechanisms behind continental drift, the formation of oceanic crust, and the movement of Earth's tectonic plates.

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Mapping of the ocean floor

Mapping the ocean floor, also known as bathymetry, is a crucial process for understanding the topography, geological features, and ecosystems of the Earth's oceans.

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Air mass and its impact on macro climatic changes

An air mass is a large body of air with relatively uniform temperature and moisture characteristics.
It covers an extensive geographic area and has a distinct source region.
Air masses are classified based on their temperature and moisture characteristics.

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Monsoon Climate

Monsoon climate is a distinct climatic pattern characterized by seasonal changes in wind direction and precipitation. It is commonly experienced in several regions around the world, including South and Southeast Asia, parts of Africa, and northern Australia.

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Impact of Climate on Desertification

Climate plays a crucial role in the process of desertification, which refers to the expansion of desert-like conditions into non-desert areas. Desertification is influenced by a combination of climatic, ecological, and human factors.

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Temperature Inversion: Causes and Impacts

Temperature inversion refers to a meteorological phenomenon in which the temperature of the atmosphere increases with altitude, contrary to the normal decrease in temperature with height. In this case, a layer of warm air is trapped above a layer of cooler air near the Earth's surface, leading to an inversion of the usual temperature profile. Temperature inversions can occur in various atmospheric conditions and have both natural and human-induced causes. They can have significant impacts on weather, air quality, and human activities.

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Heat Islands

Heat islands refer to urban areas that experience significantly higher temperatures compared to their surrounding rural areas. This phenomenon is primarily caused by human activities and the built environment. Heat islands have numerous negative impacts on human health, energy consumption, and the environment. In this comprehensive set of notes, we will explore the causes, effects, mitigation strategies, and potential solutions to combat the heat island effect.

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Heat Dome

Several countries in Europe experienced record-breaking temperatures in January, with temperatures 10 to 200C above average. This phenomenon was attributed to the formation of a heat dome over the region. Heat domes have become more frequent and intense in recent years, causing deadly heat waves.

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Rare Earth Metals

Rare earth elements or metals comprise a group of 17 chemical elements in the periodic table. These elements include the 15 lanthanides, along with scandium and yttrium, which are often found in the same ore deposits as the lanthanides and share similar chemical properties. Despite their classification, most of these elements are not actually rare. One of the rare earths, promethium, is radioactive.

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India Strategic Oil Reserve

The Impact of Global Oil Markets: The interconnectedness of the world's oil markets means that disturbances in one region can have a far-reaching impact on prices worldwide.

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Distribution of Uranium and Thorium in India

India possesses abundant reserves of atomic minerals, including uranium and thorium, which are vital for nuclear energy production. Additional atomic minerals such as beryllium, lithium, and zirconium also contribute to India's mineral wealth.

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USA-led Minerals Security Partnership (MSP)

The Indian Government is increasingly concerned about India's absence from the Minerals Security Partnership. A US-led partnership aimed at securing supply chains of critical minerals and reducing dependence on China.

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Industrial Corridors

Industrial corridors play a vital role in India's economic development by promoting industrialization, attracting investments, and creating employment opportunities. These strategically planned stretches of land are designed to support industrial activities and associated infrastructure. Industrial corridors aim to leverage locational advantages and foster regional connectivity.

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Industrial Regions of the World

Industrial regions play a crucial role in shaping the economic landscape of the world. These regions are characterized by concentrations of industries and manufacturing activities, typically driven by factors such as access to resources, favorable geographical conditions, skilled labor pools, infrastructure, and market proximity. Industrial regions are dynamic hubs of economic activity, fostering innovation, productivity, and regional development.

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Mangroves and their importance in maintaining coastal ecology

Mangroves are tropical plants that can withstand tidal inundation, salt water, and loose, damp soil. Climate, salt water, tidal fluctuation, and soil type all seem to have a significant role in the dispersal of mangroves. There are more than 50 different species throughout the globe.

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Desertification

Desertification is the process through which vegetation in drylands, also known as arid and semi-arid lands, such as grasslands or shrublands, declines and finally vanishes.

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Soil Erosion and Degradation

The erosion of the top layer of the soil which is also known as topsoil is referred to as soil erosion. Many variables influence the pace of soil erosion, including the composition of the soil, vegetation, the strength of wind and rain and anthropogenic factors.

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Environmental Implications of the Reclamation of the water bodies

Land reclamation refers to changing the natural characteristics of water bodies like oceans, rivers, lakes, or marshes. By transforming marshes or other bodies of water, it might happen inland or along coasts.

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Forest and Wildlife Resources

The word "forest resources" refers to the various sorts of resources that forests supply, such as wood, timber, bushmeat, pharmaceuticals, etc. A thick growth of trees and other plants that occupies a sizable area of land is known as a A group of plants and animals interacting with one another and their surroundings is called an ecosystem.

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Social Forestry and Agroforestry

The practice of managing forests for the benefit of local communities is known as social forestry. It entails activities like forest management, forest protection, and afforestation of deforested lands with the aim of enhancing rural, environmental, and social development.

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Vulnerability

Vulnerability is the human dimension of disasters and is the result of the range of economic, social, cultural, institutional, political, and psychological factors that shape people’s lives and the environment that they live in. Vulnerability describes the characteristics and circumstances of a community, system or assets that make it susceptible to the damaging effects of hazards.

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Disaster resilience

According to the Hyogo Framework for Action (UNISDR, 2005), disaster resilience is determined by the degree to which individuals, communities and public and private organisations are capable of organising themselves to learn from past disasters and reduce their risks to future ones, at international, regional, national and local levels.

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Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction

Disasters pose significant threats to human lives, economies, and the environment, highlighting the urgent need for effective strategies to mitigate and manage their impact. The Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction, endorsed by the UN General Assembly in 2015, stands as a global commitment to reducing disaster risk and enhancing resilience. With its emphasis on collaboration, shared responsibility, and the integration of disaster risk reduction across various agendas, the framework aims to create a safer and more sustainable world.

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India's efforts in disaster management

Active involvement of people in making decisions about the implementation of processes, programs, and projects which affect them.

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Crowd Management and Disasters Due to Large Crowd Presence

Crowd management is the systematic process of planning, organizing, and monitoring large gatherings of people with the objective to establish a safe and secure environment and maintain a minimum level of space to avoid panic and rapid crowd movements.

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Geomorphology

The universe began with a tiny, dense ball called the "Tiny Ball" or Big Bang.
The Big Bang occurred about 13.7 billion years ago and caused a violent explosion.

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Disaster Management

A disaster is a mishap or hazard which causes huge loss of life and property and disrupts the balance of the economy. It is a tragic event with drastic consequences for living beings as well as social and individual development.

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Oceanography

The oceans, encompassing around 70% of Earth's surface, stand as the largest and most prominent feature on our planet, defining its unique character. With a single interconnected body of water known as the world ocean, it is divided into five principal oceans viz. the Pacific, Atlantic, Indian, Southern, and Arctic Oceans.

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Factors affecting climate

Introduction

Climate refers to the long-term average weather conditions of a particular region or the Earth as a whole. It is influenced by various factors that can be categorized into natural factors and human factors. Understanding these factors is essential for comprehending climate patterns and predicting future changes.

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Distribution of Minerals in India

Introduction: Minerals are naturally occurring substances with unique chemical compositions and crystalline structures found in the Earth's crust.

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