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Bhakti movement emerged around the 7th century in South India, through the devotional poetry of Saiva Nayanar saints(devotees of Shiva)  and Vaisnava Alvar saints (devotees of Vishnu)of South India. It spread across India over centuries, peaking between the 15th and 17th centuries.

It arose as a response to the rigidity of Vedic rituals, caste hierarchies, and the dominance of Brahminical orthodoxy. The movement emphasised personal devotion and a direct emotional bond with the divine, making spirituality accessible to all, regardless of caste or gender.

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Bhakti Movement Origin 

Origin of the bhakti movement was the result of the accumulation of different factors:

• Movement’s roots trace back to the Tamil devotional traditions, with the Alvars’ Divya Prabandham (Vishnu hymns) and Nayanars’ Tirumurai (Shiva hymns) forming its textual foundation (Hardy, Viraha-Bhakti). These works emphasised emotional devotion over ritualistic practices.
• Bhagavad Gita (circa 2nd century BCE) provided an early philosophical basis, advocating bhakti as a path to salvation accessible to all, influencing later bhakti traditions (Hawley).
• The decline of Buddhism and Jainism in South India by the 7th century, coupled with the rise of feudal structures, created a socio-political context conducive to new religious expressions (Basham).
• The movement spread to North, West, and East India, adapting to regional contexts and incorporating influences from Sufism and local traditions. Its early development was shaped by socio-political changes, including the decline of Buddhism and Jainism, and was systematised by figures like Ramanuja, later spreading through saints like Ramananda.

Also, read Buddhism

Founder of the Bhakti Movement

Bhakti movement, a medieval Indian devotional tradition, had no single founder but evolved through contributions from various saints across centuries. South Indian Alvars and Nayanars (7th–8th centuries) laid its foundation, while Ramananda, Kabir, Tulsidas, and others spread it in North India.

Principles of the Bhakti Movement

Bhakti movement’s core principles are given below:

• Personal and Emotional Devotion to God:
  • Bhakti movement emphasised bhakti (devotion) as the primary path to salvation, prioritising a direct, heartfelt connection with a personal deity (e.g., Vishnu, Shiva, Krishna, Rama) over ritualistic practices (karma) or intellectual knowledge (jnana).
• Spiritual Equality Across Caste and Gender:
  • The movement challenged caste hierarchies and gender barriers, enabling people from all social strata, including lower castes (e.g., Ravidas, a leatherworker) and women (e.g., Mirabai), to participate in devotional practices, undermining Brahminical dominance.
• Use of Vernacular Languages for Accessibility:
  • Bhakti saints composed poetry and songs in regional languages (e.g., Tamil, Hindi, Marathi, Bengali) instead of Sanskrit, making religious ideas accessible to the common people.
• Saguna and Nirguna Bhakti Traditions:
  • The movement included two streams: saguna bhakti (devotion to a deity with form, e.g., Krishna or Rama, as in Tulsidas’ and Surdas’ works) and nirguna bhakti (devotion to a formless divine, as in Kabir’s and Guru Nanak’s teachings).
• Rejection of Ritualism and Priestly Authority:
  • Bhakti saints criticised elaborate Vedic rituals and the authority of Brahmin priests, advocating simple, heartfelt devotion accessible to all, regardless of social status.
• Syncretism and Universalism:
  • Saints like Kabir and Guru Nanak blended Hindu and Islamic elements, promoting a universal spiritual path that transcended religious boundaries, contributing to a shared cultural ethos.

 Also, read about Jainism

Types of Bhakti Movement

Saguna and Nirguna are the two different ideological streams of the Bhakti movement.

Saguna Bhakti

Saguna bhakti is the practice of devotion to God in form. God in form exists in all physical presence from the planet, the moon, and the sun to all objects and beings in nature. The devotion to God in form recognizes that the appearance of God seems limited by form; however, the presence of God is unlimited.

Saguna Bhakti Saints

  Ramanuja (1060-1118 AD)

• Ramanuja was a Tamil Brahmin and a Vaishnavism saint, who travelled to several parts of India to promote his message of love and devotion before settling at Srirangam.
• He was the originator of the philosophy of ‘Vishist Advaita,’ or qualified monism.
• Salvation, he believes, can be gained through Karma, Gyan, or Bhakti.
• Sri Bhasya and Gita Bhasya are two of his works. Ramananda, his pupil, carried his guru’s teachings throughout northern India.
• Brahman, according to Ramanuja, is a completely personal god who is thought to be Vishnu or one of his avatars. Vishnu, he believed, created the universe out of his love for people, and he also ruled over it at every turn.
• He also believed that Vishnu possesses all of the characteristics of a personal god, such as omniscience and omnipotence.
• The difference between Dualism and Vishishta Advaita is that “mankind has a greater rank and is closer to God than in pure dualistic worship.”
• Both the world and Brahman are equally existent in Vishishta Advaita; they have not been considered two independent realities as they are in Dualism.
• Ramanuja was a proponent of prabhattimarga or self-surrender to God.

Ramananda (1300-1380 AD)

• Saint Ramananda was an ardent Rama worshiper and a forerunner of the Bhakti movement in northern India. He was a social reformer who made Bhaktism accessible to everyone, regardless of birth, caste, creed, or sex.
• In Hindi, he wrote and articulated his beliefs, making religion more accessible to the general public.
• His lyrics are also included in the Adi Granth. Many poet-saints revered him as their Guru.
• Ramananda was a poet-saint from the 15th century who was born in Prayag (Allahabad) and taught his teachings in Benaras and Agra. His devotees are known as Ramanandis.
• He was originally a Ramanuja devotee. He, like other monotheist bhakti saints, was anti-caste and chose his students from all walks of life, regardless of caste.

Chaitanya Mahaprabhu

• Chaitanya Mahaprabhu was an ardent Krishna follower who popularised the “Hare Rama, Hare Krishna” chant. Also popularised the practice of worshipping Radha and Krishna.
• He taught the philosophy of Achintaya Bheda-Abheda. He was a Sufi who popularised “Kirtans” (religious songs) as a means of worship.
• He is the founder of the world-famous ISKCON (International Society for Krishna Consciousness), which was established in the twentieth century.
• He was well-known in Eastern India, and he spent the majority of his life in Puri, Odisha.
• In Sanskrit, he authored “Siksastakam,” a treatise in which he elucidated his ideas.
• Krishnadas Kaviraj penned Chaitanya’s autobiography.

Meera Bai (1498-1546)

• A Saguna saint and ardent devotee of Krishna, known for her ecstatic devotional songs in Rajasthani and Brajbhasha.
• Defied societal norms, including caste and gender barriers, to express her deep love for Krishna.
• Her poetry reflects themes of surrender, longing, and mystical union with the divine.
• She wrote ‘bhajans,‘ which are short religious songs that are still sung today. Meerabai was written in Braj Bhasha and Rajasthani.
• Her poem depicts a unique relationship with Lord Krishna since she is shown not only as Krishna’s devoted bride but also as Krishna in pursuit of Meer.

Eknath (1533-1599)

• He was a Maharashtra-based saint of the Varkari Panth. Sufi mysticism and Vedanta philosophy affected him.
• The ‘Eknathi Bhagavatam,’ a commentary on the Bhagavata Purana, is his most well-known work.
• He is credited with enriching Marathi literature by translating Sanskrit works into Marathi.
• He also attempted to move the focus of Marathi writing from spiritual to narrative composition, and he invented the Bharood, a new type of Marathi devotional song.
• He was against caste distinctions and preached that there was no difference between Brahmin and outcaste, Hindu and Muslim, in God’s view.
• He was a follower of the Saguna religion.

Nirguna Bhakti

Nirguna bhakti is devotion to and worship of the Divine as formless. The term comes from the Sanskrit, nir, a prefix meaning “without”; guna, meaning “qualities” or “properties,” and bhakti, which means “devotion” or “faithfulness.”

Nirguna Bhakti Saint

   Guru Nanak (1469-1539)

• Guru Nanak was born in Talwandi  (Pakistan). He had a spiritual bent when he was a child. He was a proponent of Nirguna School and was inspired by Kabir Das.
• Guru Nanak Ji emphasised “Nam Japna,” or repeating God’s name to sense his presence.
• It is important to stress, however, that Sikhism is not a continuation of the Bhakti movement. He also chastised discriminatory caste systems and called for all people to be treated equally.
• One of his famous quotes was, “Abide pure amidst the impurities of the world.”
• He intended to blur the lines between Hindus and Muslims to foster a climate of peace, friendliness, and reciprocal giving and taking.

Kabir Das (1398 or 1440-1518)

• Kabir was raised by a Muslim family after being born into a Hindu family. Discipline of Ramananda, revered Bhakti saints, whose teachings have influenced people from all walks of life.
• Kabir was a Nirguna saint who criticized major religions such as Hinduism and Islam for their traditional teachings.
• He advocated the idea of the unity of Gods, whom he refers to by numerous names, including Allah, Rama, Rahim, Hari, and others. He criticises discriminatory caste systems, particularly untouchability.
• Banis is the title of one of his poems (utterances). His writings are collected in the well-known book Bijak.
• Kabir wrote in Hindi and used Avadhi, Braj, and Bhojpuri words. His works are also featured in the Guru Granth Sahib, the sacred Sikh scripture.

Dadu Dayal (1544-1603)

• He was a Kabir devotee who thought that God was independent of all religions and sects.
• He was a contemporary of Akbar, the Mughal emperor, and it is stated that Akbar held him in high regard.
• He was born in Gujarat and went to Jaipur later. Later, his supporters formed the Dadu Panth.

Saguna VS Nirguna Bhakti

Here are some differences between Saguna and Nirguna Bhakti;

Bhakti Movement in South India

Bhakti movement in South India, spanning roughly the 7th to 12th centuries (with later developments), was a transformative devotional movement that emphasised personal devotion to gods like Vishnu, Shiva, or Devi, challenging caste hierarchies and ritualistic Brahmanism. Rooted in Tamil Nadu, it laid the foundation for the broader Bhakti movement across India.

Key Features Bhakti movement in South India:

• Personal Devotion: Emphasised direct, emotional connection with the divine, bypassing rituals and priests.
• Vernacular Language: Used Tamil for hymns, making spirituality accessible to all.
• Inclusivity: Challenged caste and gender barriers, welcoming devotees from diverse backgrounds.
• Philosophical Depth: Influenced Vishishtadvaita (Ramanuja) and Shaiva Siddhanta philosophies.
• Two Streams:

Alvars: Vaishnava saints who composed hymns in praise of Vishnu, compiled in the Divya Prabandham. They emphasised surrender (prapatti) to Vishnu.

Nayanars: Shaiva saints who glorified Shiva, with their hymns collected in the Tevaram. They focused on love and service to Shiva.

Alvars: Devotees of Lord Vishnu

Alvars were a group of twelve Tamil poet-saints who contributed to the Bhakti movement by expressing profound devotion to Lord Vishnu through heartfelt and personal worship.

• Nature of Worship: The Alvars practised bhakti, a form of worship characterised by deep emotional attachment and complete dedication to Lord Vishnu as the supreme deity.
• Literary Contribution: Their devotional songs, written in Tamil, are compiled in the Nalayira Divya Prabandham, a collection of 4,000 verses.
• Prominent Figures: Among the Alvars was Andal, a significant female saint known for her poetic contributions.
• Rivalry with Nayanars: The Alvars frequently challenged the Nayanars, emphasising Vishnu’s superiority over other deities.
• Key Philosophical Concept: Nammalvar, a prominent Alvar from the 7th century CE, developed the idea of prapatti, which refers to total surrender and trust in God. This concept became a foundational element of Srivaisnava theology from the 12th century onward.
• Use of Imagery: Some Alvars employed relatable everyday imagery to connect with Vaishnava stories. For instance, Periyalvar (9th century CE) used the imagery of a mother-child bond to depict the relationship between Yashoda and Lord Krishna.

Nayanars: Devotees of Lord Shiva

Nayanars were a group of sixty-three Tamil poet-saints who expressed their devotion to Lord Shiva through intense bhakti, contributing significantly to the Bhakti movement in South India.

• Nayanars followed a personal form of bhakti, focusing on deep devotion to Shiva as the supreme deity.
• Their Tamil hymns are collectively known as the Tevaram, a significant collection of devotional poetry.
• Also called Samayacharyas, the Nayanars included Karaikkal Ammaiyar, a notable female saint.
• The Nayanars often competed with the Alvars, asserting Shiva’s supremacy over other gods.
• They portrayed Shiva as a mighty warrior deity who combated evil forces and safeguarded devotees.
• The Nayanars highlighted Shiva’s divine acts by associating them with specific locations, particularly the Kaveri valley, a key centre of Chola authority.

Prominent Bhakti Movement Saints of South India

Bhakti movement in South India, flourishing between the 7th and 12th centuries, was led by the Alvars (Vaishnava saints devoted to Vishnu) and Nayanars (Shaiva saints devoted to Shiva). Their devotional hymns in Tamil transformed spirituality, making it accessible and inclusive. Prominent saints are given below:

Bhakti Movement in Maharashtra (13th-17th Century)

Bhakti movement in Maharashtra began in (13th–17th centuries. Its proponents were known as the Varkaris. Among its most popular figures were Jnanadev (1275- 96), Namdev (1270-50) and Tukaram (1608-50), who left behind many verses that embody the essence of Bhakti.was a transformative spiritual and cultural phenomenon centred on Pandharpur, emphasising personal devotion to Vithoba (Vishnu), Krishna, Rama, and Shiva. Led by the Varkari sect, it used Marathi poetry (abhangs) by saints like Jnaneshwar (Jnaneshwari), Namdev, Eknath (Eknathi Bhagavat), Tukaram (Tukaram Gatha), and Samarth Ramdas (Dasbodh) to promote inclusivity across caste and gender, challenging social hierarchies. The Bhakti Movement in Maharashtra is Primarily Divided into Two Sects:

• Varkaris: Devotees of Lord Vitthala of Pandharpur, characterised by their gentle, emotional, and philosophical approach, emphasising abstract and heartfelt devotion.
• Dharakaris: Followers of the Ramadasa cult, devoted to Lord Rama, known for their rational, practical, and pragmatic mindset, with a focus on concrete expressions of faith.

Key Features of the Bhakti Movement in Maharashtra

• Vernacular Language: Used Marathi to compose devotional poetry (abhangs, ovis), making spirituality accessible to the masses.
• Inclusivity: Challenged caste and gender barriers, allowing people from all backgrounds, including lower castes and women, to participate in spiritual practices.
• Varkari Tradition: Centred around annual pilgrimages (wari) to Pandharpur’s Vithoba temple, fostering a sense of community and devotion.
• Philosophical Influence: Blended Advaita (non-dualism) and Vishishtadvaita (qualified non-dualism) with devotional practices, emphasising equality in the eyes of God.

Bhakti Movement in North India

Bhakti Movement in North India (14th–17th centuries) was a spiritual revolution emphasising personal devotion to God, rejecting caste and rituals. It emerged due to a confluence of historical, religious, and socio-cultural factors as given below:

• Opposition to Religious Orthodoxy: Reacted against complex Brahmanical rituals, Sanskrit texts, and caste hierarchies, promoting a simpler, inclusive path of devotion accessible to all.
• Impact of Islamic Rule: Interaction with Sufi mysticism under the Delhi Sultanate and Mughal rule fostered syncretism, encouraging universal spiritual messages.
• Social Inequalities: Challenged rigid caste and gender barriers, offering spiritual liberation to marginalised groups like lower castes and women.
• Regional Language: The use of regional languages (Hindi, Brajbhasha, Punjabi) made spiritual teachings understandable to the masses, unlike elite Sanskrit texts.
• Political Instability: Provided spiritual solace and community cohesion amid the uncertainties of medieval Islamic rule.
• Syncretic Influences: Drew from Hindu philosophy, Sufi mysticism, and regional traditions, creating a universal appeal that bridged religious divides.

Key Features of the Bhakti Movement in North India

• Devotional at its core: The movement centred on bhakti (devotion) as the primary path to salvation, emphasising love, surrender, and a personal connection with God over elaborate rituals or caste distinctions.
• Saguna and Nirguna Traditions:
  • Saguna Bhakti: Focused on devotion to a personal deity with form, such as Vishnu (often as Rama or Krishna), Shiva, or Devi, involving worship of divine attributes and incarnations.
  • Nirguna Bhakti: Emphasised devotion to a formless, abstract divine, rejecting idol worship and promoting a monotheistic, transcendental understanding of God.
• Use of Vernacular Languages: Saints expressed their teachings through poetry and songs in regional languages like Hindi, Punjabi, and Brajbhasha, making spiritual ideas accessible to the common people.
• Social Reforms: The movement challenged caste hierarchies, gender inequalities, and religious orthodoxy, promoting inclusivity and equality in spiritual practices.
• Syncretism: It integrated elements of Hinduism, Sufism, and other traditions, fostering religious tolerance and cultural unity.

Prominent Bhakti Saints and Their Contributions 

• Ravidas (c. 15th–16th century):
  • A Nirguna saint from the Chamar (leatherworker) caste, he promoted equality and rejected caste discrimination.
  • Composed devotional hymns focusing on a formless God, many of which are part of the Adi Granth.
  • Revered in the Ravidassia tradition and the Dadupanth lineage.

• Namdev (c. 1270–1350):
  • A Varkari saint from Maharashtra, he connected the Maharashtrian bhakti tradition with North Indian monotheism.
  • Remembered in North India as a Nirguna saint, his devotional songs (abhangas) are included in the Adi Granth.
  • Travelled widely, including to Punjab, spreading devotion to Vitthala (Vishnu) and advocating social equality.

• Tulsidas (c. 1532–1623):
  • A Saguna saint devoted to Lord Rama, renowned for his epic Ramcharitmanas, written in Awadhi.
  • Popularised Rama devotion in North India, making the Ramayana accessible through vernacular poetry.
  • Emphasised moral values, devotion, and the concept of Rama Rajya (righteous governance).

• Surdas (c. 1478–1583):
  • A Saguna saint devoted to Krishna, celebrated for his lyrical poetry in Brajbhasha, compiled in the Sur Sagar.
  • Focused on Krishna’s divine love and playful deeds, appealing to the emotional and aesthetic aspects of bhakti.
  • Associated with the Vallabha sect (Pushtimarg), emphasising loving devotion to Krishna.

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Bhakti Movement FAQS?

What was the Bhakti Movement?

The Bhakti Movement was a socio-religious reform movement in medieval India that emphasised personal devotion (bhakti) to God as the path to salvation. It rejected complex rituals, caste distinctions, and dogmatic practices, promoting a direct, emotional connection with the divine through love and devotion. 

When and where did the Bhakti Movement originate?

The movement originated in South India during the 7th–8th centuries CE with the Tamil Alvars (Vaishnava saints) and Nayanars (Shaiva saints). It later spread to North, East, and West India between the 12th and 18th centuries, gaining widespread popularity.

Who were the prominent saints of the Bhakti Movement?

 Key figures included Ramanuja, Chaitanya Mahaprabhu, Tulsidas, Meerabai, Kabir, Guru Nanak, Ravidas, Surdas, and Andal. These saints spread devotional teachings across India through poetry, songs, and spiritual discourses.

What was the impact of the Bhakti Movement on women?

The movement empowered women by allowing them to engage in spiritual practices. Female saints like Meerabai and Andal became symbols of devotion, inspiring women to express their spirituality and challenge patriarchal norms.

What is the lasting legacy of the Bhakti Movement?

The Bhakti Movement’s teachings on equality, devotion, and universal love laid the foundation for later social and religious reforms. Its cultural and spiritual contributions continue to influence modern India, shaping its values and identity.