1. SINDHU-SARASVATI CIVILIZATION (Syllabus: GS Paper 1 – History)

Context: The new NCERT Class 6 Social Science textbook incorporates several new elements, including references to the Harappan civilization as the ‘Sindhu-Sarasvati’ and ‘Indus-Sarasvati’ civilization

Sindhu-Sarasvati Civilization

• About: The Harappan civilization is also known as the 'Indus-Sarasvati' or 'Sindhu-Sarasvati' civilization, including major cities like Rakhigarhi and Ganweriwala.
• Discovery of Civilization: A civilization was discovered in the northwestern part of the Indian subcontinent in 1920-21 following the excavations at Mohenjo-Daro and Harappa.
• Geographic Spread: These settlements embrace Baluchistan, the whole of Sindh and Punjab, Gujarat and Rajasthan, a part of the Ganga Basin, banks of the Ghaggar-Hakra River, and the valley of the Narmada River.
• Contemporary Political Boundaries: In terms of contemporary political boundaries, of these 1400 settlements, nearly 925 are in India and 475 are in Pakistan.
• Distribution Pattern: A close look at the distribution pattern of these settlements discloses that about 80% of the sites are located on a vast plain between the Indus and the Ganga, mainly on the bank of the Sarasvati River.
• River Names: The river, now seasonal, is known as 'Ghaggar' in India and 'Hakra' in Pakistan, referred to as the 'Ghaggar-Hakra River'.
• Decline Factors: Two agreed-upon factors for the Harappan civilization's decline are climate change reducing rainfall and the drying up of the Sarasvati river.
• Abandoned Cities: The drying up of the Sarasvati river led to the abandonment of cities like Kalibangan and Banawali.
• Advanced Civilization: The Indus-Sarasvati civilization is considered to be the most advanced among all its contemporary civilizations, with highly developed agriculture, architecture, trade, and urbanization in addition to advanced pottery and usage of script.

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2. PC EMULATOR (Syllabus GS Paper 3 – Sci and Tech)

Context: For the first time, Apple has approved a PC emulator for iOS, marking a significant shift in its app store policies. 

PC Emulator

• About: An emulator, as the name suggests, is software that allows a computer device to emulate another software.
• Functionality: The difference in how a device operates allows it to run and use software designed for other, previously, incompatible devices.
• For example, software designed for a Windows PC will have to be redesigned to run on macOS. This redesign will have to be done by the developers, who may choose to not include all the functionalities available on Windows to Mac users.
• Uses: An emulator can be used in this scenario to run software designed for Windows on macOS by emulating the design architecture of Windows.

oEmulators are commonly used to run applications designed for different operating systems, play video games from older consoles, and test software across different platforms.

• Legality of PC Emulators: Emulators come in handy when testing and designing software, and they do not use proprietary codes. So, they are considered legal to use. However, sharing copyrighted ROMs (Read Only Memory) online is illegal.

oBut, as most emulators are used to running software not originally meant for a particular device, the question of legality becomes complicated.

• Legal Use of Emulators: Using an emulator is considered legal if users own the software they are running on the emulator. However, if they use the emulator to run pirated copies of software or use the emulator to distribute or download ROMs of software they do not own, it is considered illegal.

Emulators in India

• In India, the laws do not specifically ban the use of emulators. However, their use is subject to copyright and intellectual property laws.
• Legal Use in India: While it is legal to use and distribute emulators in India, users may land in trouble if they use emulators to run software such as games, operating systems, or applications without the proper licenses or ownership. Distributing ROMs without proper ownership can be problematic.

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3. RATAPANI WILDLIFE SANCTUARY (Syllabus: GS Paper 3 – Env and Eco)

Context: The Madhya Pradesh State Wildlife Board has accorded approval to declare Ratapani Wildlife Sanctuary, on the outskirts of Bhopal, as the eighth tiger reserve of MP.

Ratapani Wildlife Sanctuary

• About: It stretches across 823 sq. km in the Raisen and Sehore districts of Madhya Pradesh.
• Geography: This rocky forest with an aquatic environment is spread on the Vindhya Hills and runs parallel on the northern side of the Narmada River. The Kolar River forms the western boundary.
• Historical Background: The sanctuary was first notified in 1976, extended in 1983, and declared a Tiger Reserve in 2008.
• Cultural Significance: The Sanctuary is home to Bhimbetika, a group of rock shelters and paintings, recognized as a UNESCO World Heritage Site.
• Landscape: The terrain is rugged, featuring hills, valleys, plateaus, and plains.
• Flora: The forest consists of dry deciduous and moist deciduous types, with about 55% covered by teak. The remaining mixed forests include various dry deciduous species.
• Fauna: The apex predator is the regal striped tiger, with an estimated 40 individuals. The Sanctuary also houses the endangered Chinkara and other animals like the Panther, Hyena, Jackal, Indian Fox, Wild Dog, Jungle Cat, Small Indian Civet, Blue Bull, Black Buck, Chausingha, Spotted Deer, and Barking Deer.

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4. CADMIUM TELLURIDE (Syllabus: GS Paper 3 – Sci and Tech)

Context: A study by researchers at the Indian Institute of Technology (IIT), Mandi, reveals that CdTe (Cadmium Telluride) technology has one of the lowest environmental impacts among solar cell technologies in India.

Cadmium Telluride

• About: It is a material made from the combination of two elements: Cadmium (Cd) and Tellurium (Te).
• Physical Properties: It is an odorless and black crystalline solid.
• Properties
• Solubility: It is insoluble in water but resolves in nitrate acid, with resulting oxidation in moisture air under long-term exposure.
• Environmental Impact: It has the lowest carbon dioxide emissions, ozone depletion potential, human health effects, and particulate air pollution.
• Applications

o Semiconductor Detectors: It is considered a prospective material for room temperature semiconductor detector applications such as infrared optical windows and lenses.

o Solar Cells: CdTe is the second most common Photo Voltaic (PV) technology in the world, after silicon.

• Sustainability Assessment: It was one of five solar cell technologies on which IIT scientists conducted a life-cycle assessment (LCA) to identify the most sustainable options for solar energy production in India. 

o The other four were mono-silicon, polysilicon, Copper Indium Gallium Selenide (CIGS), and Passivated Emitter & Rear Contact (PERC).

• Comparison: CdTe was closely followed by CIGS (Copper Indium Gallium Selenide) PV cells in terms of sustainability and performance.

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5. EXTENDED PRODUCER RESPONSIBILITY (Syllabus: GS Paper 3 – Env and Eco)

Context: The Central Pollution Control Board has launched a national audit of nearly 800 plastic-waste recyclers after discovering that four firms in Karnataka, Maharashtra, and Gujarat issued approximately 600,000 fake certificates under the Extended Producer Responsibility (EPR) programme.

Extended Producer Responsibility (EPR)

• About: It is based on the polluter-pays principle, which aims to include producers of material goods in the management and treatment of waste and keep raw materials and goods in the economic cycle.
• Foundation Principles of EPR

o The concept of EPR responsibility is based on three foundation principles:

o Pollution Prevention Approach

o Life Cycle Thinking

o Polluter Pays Principle

• The objectives of EPR are as follows:

o Integration of environmental costs

o Improved waste management

o Reduction of disposal 

o Reduction of burden on municipalities

o Design of environmentally sound products

• Responsibilities: EPR responsibility makes it the responsibility of the producers not only to take back products for recycling but also to design better and longer life products to minimize the amount of waste generated.

Achievements of the draft EPR Policy

• Brand owners and e-commerce players have been brought under the ambit of EPR
• EPR is now applicable to both pre-consumer and post-consumer plastic packaging waste
• Producers and brand owners (PIBO) have finally been assigned targets for collection of plastic waste that they put out in the market
• Provisions and targets for collection, re-use (by brand owners), recycling (by PIBOs) and use of recycled plastic (by PIBOs) have been laid out. 
• Bi-annual plastic characterisation studies.

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6. ZEBRA MUSSELS (Syllabus: GS Paper 3 - Env and Eco)

Context: For the first time, zebra mussels—an invasive species known for destroying aquatic ecosystems have been discovered in the Colorado River, a crucial waterway in the American Southwest.

Zebra Mussels

• About: These are an invasive, fingernail-sized mollusk.
• Scientific Name: Dreissena polymorpha
• Distribution: They are native to the Caspian and Black Seas, south of Russia and Ukraine.

oThey entered the Great Lakes of North America in the late 1980s through ballast water discharged from ships.

• Since then, they have spread through much of eastern Canada and the United States.
• Habitat: They live underwater, attached to natural and manmade substrates such as rocks, wood, plants, native mussels, pipes, docks, boat lifts, swim rafts, moored watercraft, and other debris.
• Identification: They are easy to identify with their distinct, flat-bottomed ‘D’ shape to their shells and black, zigzag stripes against a cream background.
• Size and Lifecycle: They grow around two inches long at most, and are microscopic in their larval stage, known as a “veliger.” They are short-lived (between two and five years) and begin reproducing at two years of age.

Impacts

• They are filter feeders that attach themselves to virtually any surface. Females can release up to one million eggs each breeding season.
• They disrupt food webs by wiping out phytoplankton. Zebra Mussels are especially harmful to native mussels, many of which are species at risk. They outcompete these species for food and will attach themselves to native mussels, suffocating them.
• Their massive clustering on water-intake valves and pipes, bridge abutments, and other structures can cause severe commercial damage.

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7. REPORT OF CENTRE OF SCI & ENVIRONMENT (Syllabus: GS Paper 3 – Env and Eco)

Context: A new report by the Centre for Science and Environment (CSE) revealed that 64% of National Clean Air Programme (NCAP) funds are being spent on road dust mitigation to reduce PM10 pollution.

Key Findings of Report

• The CSE report has appraised efforts to curb air pollution under the national scheme through the lens of fund utilisation, city-level performance in improving air quality, and implementation gaps.
• Expenditure on PM10 Pollution: The heavy focus on PM10 pollution under NCAP has meant that road paving and widening, pothole repairs, water sprinkling, and procurement of mechanised sweepers accounted for a dominant share in the expenditure under NCAP, the report said.
• Fund Allocation for Road Dust Mitigation: A review of the sectoral patterns showed that 64 per cent of the total funds went into road dust mitigation, while only 12.63% and 14.51% funds were spent on combustion sources of pollution like vehicles and biomass burning, respectively. 

oA mere 0.61% was spent on industrial pollution control.

• NGT Scrutiny of NCAP Expenditure: The National Green Tribunal (NGT) is also scrutinising the national scheme in a suo matter, appraising expenditure under NCAP across 53 cities.
• Pollution Reduction Targets: These cities, known as non-attainment cities for not meeting pollution standards, have to cut their pollution levels by 40% by 2025-26 with 2019-20 as a base year.
• Disproportionate Focus on Dust Control: The report highlighted that the programme has a disproportionate focus on dust control and neglects key combustion sources and the transport sector.

National Clean Air Programme (NCAP)

• About: This marks the inaugural attempt in the nation to establish a national framework for managing air quality, complete with a time-bound reduction objective.
• Aim: To improve air quality in 131 cities (non-attainment cities and Million Plus Cities) in 24 States/UTs by engaging all stakeholders.
• Launched: January 2019
• Nodal Ministry: Ministry of Environment, Forests and Climate Change (MoEFCC).
• Target: To achieve 20% to 30% reduction in concentrations of PM10(particulate matter of diameter between 10 and 2.5 micrometer) and PM2.

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8. SAGITTARIUS A* (Syllabus: GS Paper 3 – Sci and Tech)

Context: Scientists have uncovered an intermediate-mass black hole at the center of a star cluster in the Milky Way, situated near the supermassive black hole Sagittarius A* (SgrA*).

Sagittarius A* (Sgr A*)

• Location: It is a supermassive black hole located at the center of our spiral galaxy, the Milky Way.
• Mass: It is mostly dormant and only occasionally absorbs gas or dust, but has an estimated mass 4.3 million times that of the sun.
• Constellation: It is located in the constellation Sagittarius.
• Diameter: It has a diameter of around 14.6 million miles (23.5 million kilometers).
• Radio Waves: It is a strong source of radio waves. Most of the radio radiation is from a synchrotron mechanism, indicating the presence of free electrons and magnetic fields.
• Event Horizon: The event horizon of the black hole has a radius of 12 million km (7 million miles).

Black Hole

• Definition: A black hole is a region in space where gravity pulls so much that even light cannot get out.
• Formation: The gravity is so strong because matter has been squeezed into a tiny space, often occurring when a star is dying.
• Detection: Because no light can get out, it is difficult to detect a black hole.
• Types: The largest black holes are called "supermassive," having masses greater than 1 million suns combined.
• Theoretical Prediction: Albert Einstein first predicted the existence of black holes in 1916, with his general theory of relativity.
• Event Horizon: It is the boundary defining the region of space around a black hole from which nothing (not even light) can escape.

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9. SUBVENTION SCHEMES (Syllabus: GS Paper 3 – Economy)

Context: Supreme Court grants relief to Noida buyers suffering under subvention schemes, criticizing builders and banks for their hardships.

Subvention Schemes

• About: The word subvention means a grant of money or aid mostly paid by the government.
• Usage in Real Estate: Subvention and subvention schemes usually find a mention in advertisements put up by real estate developers, as subvention is one of the most advertised schemes floated by real estate companies to boost sales.
• Agreement Details: Under the scheme, the home buyer, builder, and the bank enter into a tripartite agreement, where the buyer pays 10% of the money upfront while 80% of the amount is paid by the bank to the builder directly in the form of a loan, so that it can continue construction work.
• Structure of Subvention Schemes: Under subvention schemes, the home buyer, banker, and developer enter into a tripartite agreement where the buyer pays 5-20% of the money upfront.
• Role of the Bank: The rest is paid by the bank in the form of a loan which is disbursed to the developer to continue the construction work.
• Developer's Responsibility: The developer pays interest on the loan till the buyer takes possession of the property or till such time as mentioned in the buyer-developer agreement.
• Benefits to Homebuyers: It can benefit from such schemes because their EMI only begins after the possession of the property has been taken.
• Benefits to Developers: It benefit because such a scheme often increases the saleability of their project.
• Disbursement by Banks: Under the subvention scheme, the banks or financial institutions would disburse the sanctioned amount directly to the builder who is supposed to pay the pre-EMIs or full EMIs until the possession of the flat is handed over to the home buyers.

Difference Between Subvention and Subsidy

• Subsidy is a grant, especially from the government to boost production and consumption. The government pays a part of the cost of production of certain goods or services. 
• But a subvention scheme offers a relief in the buyer’s loan interest burden but does not make anything free. The seller often adds the interest to be paid by him to the cost of the product.

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10. TRANSITING EXOPLANET SURVEY SATELLITE (Syllabus: GS Paper 3 – Sci and Tech)

Context: A new study involving 32 scientists from 10 countries, confirmed by the Transiting Exoplanet Survey Satellite (TESS), has spotted a smaller black hole orbiting a pair in the galaxy OJ 287, located four billion light-years away. This marks the first time an orbiting black hole has been observed.

Transiting Exoplanet Survey Satellite

• About: It  is a NASA mission searching for planets orbiting the brightest stars in Earth's sky.
• Targeting Dwarf Stars: Designed to discover thousands of exoplanets orbiting around the brightest dwarf stars in the sky.
• Range of Planets: TESS finds planets ranging from small, rocky worlds to giant planets, showcasing the diversity of planets in our galaxy.
• Achievements: It has discovered 410 confirmed exoplanets, or “new worlds,” circling stars other than the Sun.
• Successor to Kepler: TESS follows NASA's highly successful Kepler space telescope, which found thousands of exoplanets during a decade of work after its 2009 launch.
• Launch Date and Vehicle: Launched on April 18, 2018, aboard a SpaceX Falcon 9 rocket from Cape Canaveral.
• Orbit and Observation: It circles Earth in a high Earth orbit with a 12 to 15-day period, allowing a largely unobstructed view of the sky.
• Mission Status: The prime mission ended on July 4, 2020, and TESS is currently on an extended mission.

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