1. Square Kilometre Array (SKA) Project

International mega-science radio telescope project driving advanced computing and big data analytics capabilities.

Why in News

India and South Africa reviewed their flagship cooperation on the Square Kilometre Array (SKA) project during the June 2026 bilateral technology partnership upgrade, recognizing it as a critical driver for global computing capabilities.

Key Facts

• SKA is the world's largest radio telescope project designed to study the universe with unprecedented detail and survey speed.
• Primary telescope sites are located in South Africa (SKA-Mid) and Australia (SKA-Low), chosen for their radio-quiet environments.
• India is a founding member nation and contributes through the Tata Institute of Fundamental Research (TIFR) and other research institutions.
• The project will generate approximately 700 petabytes of raw data annually, requiring cutting-edge computing infrastructure.
• SKA Observatory headquarters is located in Jodlebank, United Kingdom, established in 2019 as an intergovernmental organization.
• The telescope will be 50 times more sensitive than current radio telescopes and 10,000 times faster at surveying the sky. (UPSC Mains Usage: Links to GS3 Science & Technology—international mega-science projects and India's space diplomacy)
• Expected to revolutionize understanding of dark energy, cosmic magnetism, and the early universe.
• Will support human resource development in high-performance computing, big data analytics, and radio astronomy.

Quick Revision Box

Term	Detail
SKA-Mid	Located in South Africa, focuses on mid-frequency radio observations
SKA-Low	Located in Australia, targets low-frequency radio spectrum
Data Volume	Approximately 700 petabytes of raw data generated annually
Observatory HQ	Jodlebank, UK; established as intergovernmental body in 2019
India's Role	Founding member; contributes via TIFR and research institutions
Sensitivity	50x more sensitive than existing radio telescopes

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2. Digital Public Infrastructure (DPI)

Open-source, interoperable digital platforms enabling inclusive service delivery at population scale.

Why in News

India and South Africa have mandated Digital Public Infrastructure (DPI) as one of the primary pillars for their next-generation technology partnership in June 2026, moving toward scalable technology commercialization.

Key Facts

• DPI refers to shared digital systems (identity, payments, data exchange) that enable inclusive, accountable service delivery at population scale.
• India's Aadhaar (identity), UPI (payments), and DigiLocker (data exchange) form the foundational DPI stack known as the India Stack.
• UPI processed over 100 billion transactions worth more than ₹180 lakh crore in FY 2025-26.
• The G20 Digital Economy Working Group under India's presidency (2023) elevated DPI as a global public good framework. (UPSC Mains Usage: Links to GS3 Economy—financial inclusion and digital economy)
• DPI principles: open architecture, interoperability, minimalist design, and federated governance ensuring no single entity controls the infrastructure.
• Over 20 countries including Singapore, France, and UAE are adopting India's DPI approach for their digital transformation.
• DPI is critical for delivering welfare schemes, financial inclusion, healthcare access, and education services (UPSC Mains Usage: Links to GS2 Governance—service delivery mechanisms)
• The Digital India Act (under consultation) aims to provide a comprehensive legal framework for DPI governance and data protection.

Quick Revision Box

Term	Detail
India Stack	Aadhaar + UPI + DigiLocker—India's foundational DPI layers
UPI Transactions	Over 100 billion transactions in FY 2025-26
G20 DPI Push	India's 2023 G20 presidency elevated DPI as global framework
Core Principles	Open, interoperable, minimalist, federated governance
Global Adoption	Over 20 countries adopting India's DPI model
Legal Framework	Digital India Act (under consultation) for DPI governance

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3. African Continental Free Trade Area (AfCFTA)

World's largest free trade area by number of countries, creating a unified continental market.

Why in News

India is increasingly leveraging the AfCFTA—a USD 3.4 trillion market covering 1.4 billion people—by establishing manufacturing hubs in South Africa and Kenya for continent-wide market access as part of its realigned Africa strategy in June 2026.

Key Facts

• AfCFTA is a free trade agreement among 54 of 55 African Union nations (all except Eritrea), launched operationally on 1 January 2021.
• Creates a single continental market with a combined GDP of USD 3.4 trillion and population of 4 billion people.
• Secretariat is located in Accra, Ghana; Wamkele Mene is the Secretary-General.
• Aims to eliminate 90% of tariffs on goods and facilitate free movement of capital, persons, and investments progressively.
• Expected to boost intra-Africa trade by 52% by 2030 and lift 30 million people out of extreme poverty. (UPSC Mains Usage: Links to GS2 International Relations—regional trade integration models)
• Phase I (completed): tariff liberalization, trade facilitation, and dispute resolution protocols.
• Phase II (ongoing): intellectual property rights, investment protocols, and competition policy frameworks.
• Aligned with African Union Agenda 2063 vision for integrated, prosperous, and peaceful Africa. (UPSC Mains Usage: Links to GS2 IR—developmental cooperation and South-South trade)

Quick Revision Box

Term	Detail
Member States	54 of 55 AU nations; Eritrea is the only non-member
Market Size	USD 3.4 trillion GDP, 1.4 billion people
Operational Launch	1 January 2021; secretariat in Accra, Ghana
Tariff Target	Eliminate 90% of tariffs on goods progressively
Trade Boost	Expected 52% increase in intra-Africa trade by 2030
AU Agenda Link	Aligned with African Union Agenda 2063 integration vision

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4. Southern African Customs Union (SACU)

World's oldest customs union, facilitating tariff-free trade among southern African nations.

Why in News

India has paused plans for a continent-wide Africa FTA and is prioritizing agreements with regional blocs like SACU in June 2026, enabling easier movement of goods across 5 member states.

Key Facts

• SACU is the world's oldest customs union, established in 1910, re-established in 1969 with the current agreement.
• Five member states: Botswana, Eswatini, Lesotho, Namibia, and South Africa.
• Creates a common external tariff system and enables free movement of goods within the union without internal tariffs.
• South Africa is the dominant economy, accounting for approximately 70% of SACU's GDP.
• Revenue-sharing formula distributes customs, excise, and additional duties among members based on complex calculations. (UPSC Mains Usage: Links to GS2 IR—customs union models and regional economic integration)
• Headquarters located in Windhoek, Namibia; SACU Secretariat coordinates policy implementation.
• India-SACU Preferential Trade Agreement (PTA) negotiations have been ongoing since 2007, seeking enhanced market access.
• SACU members also participate in Southern African Development Community (SADC), creating overlapping economic frameworks.

Quick Revision Box

Term	Detail
Establishment	World's oldest customs union—1910, current form 1969
Member States	Botswana, Eswatini, Lesotho, Namibia, South Africa
HQ Location	Windhoek, Namibia; SACU Secretariat coordinates policy
Dominant Economy	South Africa—approximately 70% of SACU GDP
India-SACU PTA	Negotiations ongoing since 2007 for enhanced market access
Overlap	Members also part of SADC (Southern African Development Community)

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5. Information Fusion Centre–Indian Ocean Region (IFC-IOR)

India's maritime domain awareness hub enhancing regional maritime security through information sharing.

Why in News

Under the SAGAR doctrine, India has strengthened maritime cooperation with African nations through maritime domain awareness initiatives and information-sharing via the IFC-IOR to secure vital sea lanes in June 2026.

Why in News

India has strengthened maritime cooperation with African nations through joint naval engagements and information-sharing via the Information Fusion Centre–Indian Ocean Region (IFC-IOR) under the SAGAR doctrine to secure vital sea lanes against piracy and illicit trafficking.

Key Facts

• IFC-IOR was established in December 2018 at Gurugram, Haryana, under the Indian Navy's operational control.
• Primary mandate: maritime domain awareness, information fusion, and sharing to enhance regional maritime security.
• Over 30 countries have established White Shipping Information Exchange linkages with IFC-IOR, including 21 International Liaison Officers
• Monitors commercial shipping, illegal fishing, drug trafficking, piracy, and maritime terrorism across the Indian Ocean Region.
• Operates 24x7 under the Indian Navy's Information Management and Analysis Centre (IMAC). (UPSC Mains Usage: Links to GS3 Security—maritime security architecture)
• Aligned with SAGAR (Security and Growth for All in the Region) doctrine announced in 2015, emphasizing cooperative maritime security.
• IFC-IOR facilitates real-time information sharing with partner navies, coast guards, and maritime agencies without binding legal obligations. (UPSC Mains Usage: Links to GS2 IR—India's regional security role and Indian Ocean diplomacy)
• Enhances India's role as net security provider in the Indian Ocean Region, complementing the QUAD maritime security framework.

Quick Revision Box

Term	Detail
Establishment	December 2018 at Gurugram, Haryana
Parent Body	Indian Navy—operates under IMAC framework
Partner Nations	Over 30 countries with White Shipping linkages
Liaison Officers	21 International Liaison Officers stationed at IFC-IOR
SAGAR Doctrine	Announced 2015—cooperative maritime security framework
Operational Mode	24x7 monitoring of maritime domain across Indian Ocean

 

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6. India-Africa Forum Summit (IAFS)

India's flagship multilateral platform for structured engagement with African nations.

Why in News

The convening of IAFS-IV in 2026 resets the continental roadmap, transitioning bilateral dialogues from sporadic engagements to sustained, structural geopolitical alignments at the highest executive levels.

Key Facts

• IAFS is India's apex multilateral platform for engagement with African nations, launched in 2008 with IAFS-I.
• Four summits held so far: IAFS-I (2008, New Delhi), IAFS-II (2011, Addis Ababa), IAFS-III (2015, New Delhi), and IAFS-IV (2026).
• IAFS-III (2015) announced the India-Africa Development Partnership with commitments including USD 10 billion Lines of Credit over 5 years.
• India committed to establishing 18 new diplomatic missions in Africa during IAFS-III, bringing the total to 46 missions across the continent. (UPSC Mains Usage: Links to GS2 IR—India's Africa outreach and diplomatic expansion)
• Over 50 African Heads of State and Government participated in IAFS-III, making it one of the largest African leader gatherings outside the continent.
• Focus areas: capacity building, healthcare, agriculture, digital connectivity, renewable energy, trade, and counter-terrorism cooperation.
• African Union was granted permanent G20 membership during India's 2023 G20 presidency, strengthening institutional ties. (UPSC Mains Usage: Links to GS2 IR—Global South leadership and multilateral reform advocacy)
• India has extended over USD 12 billion in Lines of Credit across 42 African countries for developmental projects.

Quick Revision Box

Term	Detail
Launch Year	2008—IAFS-I held in New Delhi
Latest Summit	IAFS-IV (2026)—resets continental engagement roadmap
IAFS-III Commitment	USD 10 billion LoC over 5 years, 18 new missions
Diplomatic Missions	Total 46 missions across Africa post-IAFS-III expansion
LoC Extended	Over USD 12 billion across 42 African countries
AU-G20 Membership	AU granted permanent G20 membership during India's 2023 presidency

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7. DILRMP — Digital India Land Records Modernisation Programme

Central scheme for digitization of land records, cadastral maps, and assignment of Unique Land Parcel Identification Numbers (ULPIN) across India.

Why in News

As part of India's ease of doing business reforms, DILRMP has digitized 97.37% of cadastral maps and assigned ULPIN (Aadhaar for Land) to over 36 crore land parcels, significantly improving property registration transparency.

Key Facts

• Cadastral Map Digitization: 37% of India's cadastral maps have been digitized under DILRMP.
• ULPIN Coverage: Over 36 crore land parcels assigned Unique Land Parcel Identification Number.
• ULPIN Concept: Called "Aadhaar for Land" — a 14-digit unique identification number for every land parcel in India. (UPSC Mains Usage: Links to GS2 - Governance - e-Governance applications and GS3 - Land reforms)
• Programme Objective: Modernize land records management, minimize scope of land disputes, enhance transparency in land records maintenance system.
• Nodal Ministry: Department of Land Resources, Ministry of Rural Development.
• NGDRS Limitation: National Generic Document Registration System operational in only 17 States and UTs as of 2026, leaving over half the country on legacy systems.
• Legacy Challenge: Discrepancies between manual revenue records and modern cadastral maps create friction in digital mortgage verifications.

Quick Revision Box

Term	Detail
DILRMP Full Form	Digital India Land Records Modernisation Programme
ULPIN	Unique Land Parcel ID; 14-digit "Aadhaar for Land"
ULPIN Coverage	36 crore+ land parcels assigned
Cadastral Digitization	97.37% of maps digitized
NGDRS Status	Operational in only 17 States/UTs (2026)
Nodal Department	Department of Land Resources, Ministry of Rural Development

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8. PARIVESH 2.0 — Environmental Single Window Clearance Portal

Integrated digital platform for obtaining environmental, forest, wildlife, and coastal regulation zone clearances from central and state authorities.

Why in News

Under India's business reforms, PARIVESH 2.0 has reduced environmental clearance processing time to 64 days, streamlining approvals that previously took several months and involved multiple agencies.

Key Facts

• Clearance Time: Reduced average processing time to 64 days from previous timelines of several months.
• PARIVESH Full Form: Pro-Active and Responsive facilitation by Interactive, Virtuous and Environmental Single-window Hub.
• Coverage: Integrates approvals from four key legislations — Environment Protection Act 1986, Forest Conservation Act 1980, Wildlife Protection Act 1972, and CRZ Notification 2011. (UPSC Mains Usage: Links to GS3 - Environment - Environmental impact assessment)
• Launch: Upgraded version 0 launched to improve user experience and processing efficiency.
• Nodal Ministry: Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change (MoEFCC).
• Integration with NSWS: Works in coordination with National Single Window System for holistic clearance facilitation.
• Transparency Features: Real-time tracking, online submissions, and digital monitoring of project compliance.

Quick Revision Box

Term	Detail
PARIVESH 2.0	Environmental single window clearance portal
Processing Time	Reduced to 64 days average
Legislation Coverage	4 acts: EPA 1986, FCA 1980, WPA 1972, CRZ 2011
Nodal Ministry	Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change
Key Feature	Real-time tracking and digital monitoring
Integration	Coordinates with National Single Window System

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9. PM GatiShakti National Master Plan

Integrated multi-modal infrastructure planning platform connecting 58 ministries through GIS layers for coordinated national logistics development.

Why in News

The PM GatiShakti platform has evaluated 352 infrastructure projects worth ₹16.1 lakh crore through integration of 3,199 GIS layers across 58 ministries and all States/UTs, demonstrating coordinated infrastructure planning.

Key Facts

• Launch Date: Announced by Prime Minister on 13 October 2021 (India's 75th Independence Day year).
• Ministerial Integration: Connects planning across 58 central ministries and all States and Union Territories.
• GIS Layers: Platform integrates 3,199 GIS (Geographic Information System) layers for spatial planning. (UPSC Mains Usage: Links to GS3 - Infrastructure - Multi-modal connectivity and spatial planning)
• Project Evaluation: Assessed 352 projects valued at ₹16.1 lakh crore for integrated clearances.
• Six Pillars: Based on Comprehensiveness, Prioritization, Optimization, Synchronization, Analytics, and Dynamic
• Objective: Eliminate departmental silos in infrastructure planning, reduce logistics costs, and improve last-mile connectivity.
• Digital Platform: Uses spatial planning tools and real-time monitoring for cross-ministerial coordination.

Quick Revision Box

Term	Detail
PM GatiShakti Launch	13 October 2021; 75th Independence Anniversary
Ministerial Coverage	58 central ministries + all States/UTs
GIS Integration	3,199 Geographic Information System layers
Projects Evaluated	352 projects worth ₹16.1 lakh crore
Six Pillars	Comprehensiveness, Prioritization, Optimization, Synchronization, Analytics, Dynamic
Core Objective	Multi-modal connectivity; eliminate infrastructure silos

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10. De Facto Doctrine in Judicial Appointments

Legal principle protecting the validity of acts performed by officials later found to have held office irregularly — safeguards judicial rulings from procedural invalidation.

Why in News

Legal experts cite the Gokaraju Rangaraju case (1981) and the de facto doctrine to argue that even if the May 2026 Presidential Ordinance expanding Supreme Court strength lapses, the rulings by judges appointed under it would remain legally valid.

Key Facts

• The de facto doctrine protects acts performed by officials who held office under colour of authority, even if their appointment is later found defective.
• Established in Gokaraju Rangaraju vs Union of India (1981), where the Supreme Court ruled that judgments by improperly appointed judges remain valid.
• The doctrine prevents the chaos of invalidating thousands of judicial orders due to technical appointment irregularities.
• Applies when an official acts in good faith under apparent legal authority, and the public relies on those acts.
• In the 2026 Supreme Court expansion controversy, the doctrine would protect rulings by the three ordinance-appointed judges if Parliament rejects the regularisation Bill. (UPSC Mains Usage: Links to Rule of Law, legal certainty, and administrative law principles in GS2)
• However, the doctrine does NOT legitimise the original defective appointment — it only protects the acts performed during the tenure.
• The unprecedented scenario of a sitting Supreme Court judge on an expired ordinance-created post has never been tested in Indian constitutional history.
• Critics argue relying on the de facto doctrine to justify irregular appointments undermines constitutional discipline and the separation of powers.

Quick Revision Box

Term	Detail
De Facto Doctrine	Legal principle protecting acts by officials holding office under colour of authority
Gokaraju Rangaraju (1981)	SC case establishing validity of judgments despite defective judicial appointments
Protection Scope	Protects acts performed, not the appointment itself
2026 Application	Would protect rulings by 3 ordinance-appointed SC judges if Bill fails
Unprecedented Risk	SC judge on expired ordinance post never tested in Indian history
Good Faith Requirement	Official must act under apparent legal authority with public reliance

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11. Article 123 and the Limits of Presidential Ordinance Power: The Supreme Court Expansion Controversy

Introduction

The President of India's decision in May 2026 to expand the Supreme Court's sanctioned judicial strength from 34 to 38 judges through an ordinance under Article 123 has reignited constitutional debates on the scope and limits of executive legislative power. This development raises fundamental questions about the separation of powers, parliamentary supremacy, and the legitimate use of ordinance-making authority in matters concerning the structure of constitutional institutions.

Background

Constitutional Framework of Ordinance Power

Article 123 of the Indian Constitution empowers the President to promulgate ordinances when Parliament is not in session and circumstances necessitate immediate legislative action. These ordinances carry the same force as Acts of Parliament but are temporary measures, expiring six weeks after Parliament reassembles unless replaced by legislation. This provision was designed as an emergency legislative tool to address urgent governance needs during parliamentary recess.

The framers of the Constitution envisioned ordinances as extraordinary measures, not substitutes for regular legislative processes. Dr. B.R. Ambedkar emphasized that ordinance power should be used sparingly and only when genuine urgency exists. The temporary nature of ordinances reflects the primacy of parliamentary sovereignty in India's constitutional scheme.

Supreme Court's Composition: A Parliamentary Prerogative

Article 124(1) explicitly vests Parliament with the authority to determine the Supreme Court's composition and strength "by law." This constitutional design reflects the principle that structural changes to apex judicial institutions should undergo democratic deliberation and legislative scrutiny. The phrase "by law" signifies that only Parliament—not the executive—possesses the competence to alter the Supreme Court's fundamental architecture.

Historically, changes to the Supreme Court's strength have been effected through Parliamentary legislation, ensuring debate, consultation, and democratic legitimacy. The Supreme Court (Number of Judges) Act has been amended multiple times by Parliament, gradually increasing judicial strength to address rising caseloads and pendency.

Recent Development

In May 2026, the President issued an ordinance creating three additional judicial positions in the Supreme Court, expanding the sanctioned strength to 38 judges. Subsequently, five new judges were appointed—two filling existing vacancies within the original 34-judge baseline, and three occupying the ordinance-created seats. This ordinance is scheduled to expire during the monsoon session of Parliament in August 2026 unless replaced by legislation.

The appointment of Justice V. Mohana, the junior-most judge, depends entirely on the ordinance's validity. If Parliament fails to convert the ordinance into law before it lapses, the legal status of appointments to the three additional seats becomes constitutionally uncertain, potentially creating unprecedented judicial complications.

Significance

Constitutional Implications

This development tests the boundaries between executive convenience and constitutional propriety. If upheld, using ordinances to alter the composition of constitutional institutions could establish a precedent for executive overreach, potentially undermining parliamentary sovereignty and separation of powers.

The controversy underscores the tension between addressing urgent governance needs—such as judicial pendency—and adhering to constitutional processes that ensure democratic legitimacy. The Supreme Court's own pending caseload of over 80,000 cases provides context for the expansion's urgency, yet raises questions about whether administrative exigency justifies constitutional shortcuts.

Judicial Independence Concerns

The use of ordinance power to create judicial positions raises concerns about judicial independence. Judges appointed to ordinance-created seats may face questions about the legitimacy of their tenure, potentially affecting public confidence in judicial appointments and the independence of the judiciary itself.

Challenges

Legal and Constitutional Challenges

The ordinance faces several constitutional obstacles. First, Article 124(1)'s explicit requirement that Parliament determine the Supreme Court's strength "by law" appears to preclude executive action through ordinances. Second, the Supreme Court's landmark ruling in D.C. Wadhwa vs State of Bihar (1986) condemned governing through repromulgated ordinances as a "fraud on the Constitution," establishing that ordinance power cannot substitute for legislative processes.

Third, the absence of demonstrable urgency raises questions about whether the constitutional conditions for ordinance promulgation were satisfied. Parliament could have been convened or the matter addressed in regular session, suggesting the expansion was more a matter of administrative convenience than genuine emergency.

Precedent and Institutional Balance

Accepting ordinances as legitimate instruments for structural judicial changes could establish dangerous precedents. Future governments might use similar logic to alter other constitutional institutions, eroding the system of checks and balances. The question arises: if the Supreme Court's composition can be changed by ordinance, what prevents similar executive actions affecting the Election Commission, CAG, or other constitutional bodies?

Practical Uncertainties

The precarious legal status of appointments to ordinance-created seats creates uncertainty. If Parliament rejects or fails to replace the ordinance with legislation, the validity of judicial decisions rendered by judges occupying these seats could be challenged, potentially causing institutional chaos and undermining judicial authority.

Way Forward

Immediate Parliamentary Action

Parliament must address the ordinance during the monsoon session of August 2026, either by passing replacement legislation or allowing it to lapse. The legislative debate should thoroughly examine the constitutional propriety of using ordinance power for structural judicial changes and establish clear principles for future cases.

Constitutional Clarity Through Judicial Review

The Supreme Court should consider constituting a larger bench to examine the validity of using Article 123 for matters explicitly reserved to Parliament under Article 124(1). Such judicial scrutiny would provide authoritative guidance on the limits of ordinance power and prevent future executive overreach.

Institutional Reforms

This controversy highlights the need for a permanent mechanism to regularly review and adjust the Supreme Court's strength based on objective criteria such as caseload, disposal rates, and pendency levels. A standing parliamentary committee could periodically assess judicial requirements and recommend legislative changes through proper constitutional channels.

Strengthening Constitutional Conventions

The executive and Parliament should develop clearer conventions regarding ordinance use, emphasizing that this power is truly exceptional and cannot substitute for regular legislative processes, especially for structural changes to constitutional institutions. Guidelines distinguishing genuine emergencies from administrative convenience would strengthen constitutional governance.

Addressing Judicial Pendency

Beyond increasing judicial strength, comprehensive reforms are needed to address the root causes of case pendency, including procedural reforms, alternative dispute resolution mechanisms, judicial infrastructure improvement, and better case management systems.

Conclusion

The May 2026 ordinance expanding the Supreme Court's strength represents a critical juncture in India's constitutional evolution. While addressing legitimate concerns about judicial capacity, it raises fundamental questions about executive power, parliamentary sovereignty, and constitutional propriety. The resolution of this controversy will shape the future relationship between India's constitutional institutions and establish important precedents regarding the limits of executive legislative power. As Parliament deliberates, the imperative must be to uphold constitutional processes while ensuring the judiciary's functional capacity to deliver justice.

Mains Practice Question

"The use of Presidential ordinances under Article 123 to expand the Supreme Court's judicial strength raises fundamental questions about the separation of powers and parliamentary sovereignty." Critically examine this statement in light of the constitutional provisions under Articles 123 and 124(1), and the Supreme Court's ruling in D.C. Wadhwa case. (250 words, 15 marks)

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